APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 1, we discussed misconception descriptions and definitions of psychology. The unit also served to introduce you to other units in this course. You can now describe and define psychology from your own understanding. You are about to study another interesting unit: the study of behaviour. Because psychology is a relatively new discipline, it is still adopting different approaches to the study of behaviour. This unit guides you through these approaches. Let us look at what other content you should learn in this unit as specified in the unit objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
explain some of the approaches to the study of behaviour; list the objectives of psychology; and
describe some of the methods used by psychologists in their research.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

From our discussion in unit 1, you will remember that part of the problem with offering a simple but all embracing definition of psychology is that the term ‘psychology’ includes a number of different approaches. Some of the main approaches that you will study in this unit include:

The Biological Approach: Psychologists operating from this perspective tend to search for the causes of behaviour in the functioning of the brain and biochemical processes. It is relevant for you to note that this approach has become more and more important in recent years as we learn more about the brain and brain chemistry. Let us cite an example to drive home this point. A psychologist working from this perspective might for example, search for abnormalities in the brain chemistry of depressed people. The psychologists might try to alleviate the symptoms by suggesting techniques such as administering anti depressant drugs (we will discuss more on this in HEM 606; Alcohol drugs and HIV/AIDS), thus altering the brains chemistry.
The Psychodynamic Approach: This approach is linked to the writings of Sigmund Freud. Freud believes that human behaviour stems from inherited instincts, biological drive, and attempts to resolve, the competing demands of personal needs and society’s expectations. According to Freud, a great deal of an individual’s personality is determined in the first five years of life, when some of these conflicts are being resolved. You must also note that Freud laid great emphasis on the role of the unconscious mind in producing behaviour. In addition a lot of his work involved trying to find ways of tapping into the unconscious. You need to remember that while psychologists do not refer to Freud’s writings a great deal today, there are some areas (for example aggression) where his views may be relevant. We will discuss more on aggression later in this course.

Our discussion as getting clearer and more understandable. I commend your active participation. Now, try your hand on this question.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

i. We know that psychology is the scientific study of animal and human behaviour. From our discussion, there is a particular approach that attempts to find out the cause of behaviour. State in
the space that follows which approach we are referring to.
ii. List one particular area of psychology where Freud’s writing may be of relevance today.
Well done. Let us continue our discussion. The Behaviourist Approach: unlike the previous two approaches, behaviourists are interested not in biological drives or unconscious forces, but rather they are interested in observable behaviour and the environmental force which appear to sustain such behaviour. Behavourists
such as Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner would thus spend a great deal of time studying the behaviour itself and the environmental conditions that appear to sustain or discourage the behaviour.


You must note that for the behaviourist, any piece of behaviour can be explained simply by reference to the environmental factors that are present and which reinforce the behaviour in question. Let us cite an example to ensure clarity and understanding. A behaviourist called upon to help deal with a disruptive boy in school may start by examining the problem behaviour within the classroom. He/She may observe that whenever the child is disruptive, he receives attention from the teacher, but when he is well behaved, he is ignored. The behaviourist might suggest that the teacher starts to ignore the boy when he is being disruptive, and reinforce his good behaviour instead.

The Cognitive Approach: From this perspective, behaviour is understood by reference to the ways in which people think. It is primarily concerned with thinking, the processing of information, perception, memory, problem solving, and consciousness. As such the cognitive approach sees humans not as passive organisms shaped entirely by their genes or by the environment, but rather as thinking, rationalizing individuals who can work through and solve problems and plan their actions. You must note that the cognitive approach has gained influence over the last 30 years. You will see some example of cognitive approach in some units of this course when we consider the area of perception.
You should be aware that there are other approaches. For example, humanism is another approach concerned with the individual and his/her unique qualities, and ecological psychology, which is concerned with the study of behaviour in its natural environment.
Now, find out the progress you have made in understanding our discussion by answering the following questions.


SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1


i. State in the space below the main interest of behaviourists ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

ii. Identify the main concern of behaviour from the standpoint of cognitive approach Well done. Let us continue our discussion.

3.1 Objectives of psychology

The objectives of psychology are many. Of these, the most important are: 

1. Understanding human behaviour.
2. Explaining data. This is usually achieved by formulating a theory that can explain the data.
3. Relying on the scientific method to test the accuracy of their theories because so many factors are involved in the manifestation of behaviour. One test of a theory’s accuracy and usefulness is its ability to predict behaviour and mental processes.
4. Applying knowledge to promote human welfare. Knowledge gained through psychological research touches almost on every aspect of our lives, ranging from the way we raise and teach children to the tests you took to gain admission to the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN); from the advertising of goods and services that we see on television to the design of ‘tie-and-dye’ (our local textile print) and from the way nations resolve conflicts.
5. Shaping of human behaviour when necessary. When psychology is referred to as a ‘new’ science we mean that the methods of studying psychological problems are new. This is bound to be so since
psychology became a science in the modem sense of the concept, in the mid nineteenth century. That was when scientific methods were first applied to psychological problems.
I am sure our discussion is clear and understandable to you. Now, try your hand on this question.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Identify and write in the space below any three goals of psychology. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I am sure you are eager to know how psychologists achieve the objectives discussed above. We must therefore continue our discussion.

3.2 The Methods of Psychology

The most important methods psychologists use to accomplish their objectives are:

1.  Naturalistic observation: For the most part, psychologists have learned about behaviour in animal and human subjects from laboratory studies. However, at times psychologists wan to study how animals and people behave in their normal environments. To do this, the method of naturalistic observation is used. You must remember that this method has two general characteristics. a. Subjects are observed in their natural environments, and b. The observer does not attempt to interfere with natural behaviour of the subjects It is to be noted that the ethnologists (scientists who study the behaviour of animals in the wild) use the method of naturalistic observation. For example, much of what we know about aggressive behaviour in animals comes from ethological studies. From these studies, psychologists have learned that groups of animals have territories and will bend together to fight off any intruders (Krunck, 1966). The Nobel Prize winning ethnologist Konrad Lorenz (1966), has also proposed that humans, like animals also band together to defend their territory and that this is one of the primary causes of human aggression (we will discuss more on this later). The result of observation can be realized in various situations and is therefore useful for control and prediction. Amongst the disadvantages of observation are that what is observed may not necessary reveal the true feelings of an individual subject, and the individual who is observing may have his own biases which may possibly colour his interpretation of the findings. 
2.  The Case Study: The case study is an essential part of understanding and helping people with psychological disorders. Sigmond Freud, the Austrians, psychologist was probably the first man to introduce case history as a method of scientific investigation. Case history may be described as mainly a clinical method. Let u give an example to assist you in gaining a clear understanding. 

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have learnt some approaches to the study of behaviour, objectives of psychology and the methods of psychology. You should also have learned about the different perspectives from which psychologists approach their subject. Among such approaches are the biological approach, the psychodynamic approach, the behaviourist approach and the cognitive approach.

You will have seen that psychologists usually adopt a scientific methodology in trying to understand the complexities of human behaviour and go beyond simply falling back on ‘common sense’ explanations. The most important methods psychologists use to accomplish these objectives are naturalistic observation, case study, surveys, correlational studies, experimentation and tests, and questionnaires. The objectives of psychology are to describe and explain these behaviours and processes to predict their possible variation, and Sigmund Freud, the Austrian psychologist was probably the first man to introduce case history as a method of scientific investigation. Case history may be described as mainly a clinical method.

5.0 SUMMARY

What you have learnt in this unit concerns the approaches to the study of behaviour. You have also learnt the objectives of psychology and some of the methods used by psychologists in their research
The unit has served to indicate what you will learn in other units later in the course
The units that follow shall build upon these concepts.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the four objectives of psychology.
2. What are the important methods that psychologists use to achieve these objectives?