COMMUNICATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Communication is considered to be the most important and most effective aspect of the management process. Interpersonal communication is fundamental to all managerial activities. All other functions involve some form of directions and feedback. Effective management is a function of effective communication. Many operations have failed because of poor communication, misunderstood messages and unclear instructions. Even in life - in general, communication plays a very important role among friends, within the family and in all social circles. “Failure to communicate” is many times the cause of lost friendships, divorces and disaffection between parents and children. “My father does not understand me” - is the common cry of a teenager. Accordingly, communication plays an important role in every area of human life.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1.  define communication 
2.  state the objectives of communication 
3.  explain communication grapevines and communication process model 
4. discuss the barriers to effective communication. 

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition and Objectives of Communication

Communication is defined as “the process of passing information from one person to another” (Kazmier, 1977). It means transmitting and sharing of ideas, opinions, facts and information in a manner that is perceived and understood by the receiver of the communication. It is a meaningful interaction among people where the thoughts are transferred from one person to another in a manner such that the meaning and value of such thoughts is same in the minds of both the sender as well as the receiver of the communication. Effective communication is essential for management to successfully perform its functions. It is an essential ingredient in management-employee relations. According to W.R. Spriegal:

Most of the conflicts in business are not basic but are caused by misunderstood motives and ignorance of facts. Proper communications between interested parties reduce the points of friction and minimise those that inevitably arise.

Accordingly, through proper communication and sharing of information, management takes employees into confidence and makes them more knowledgeable about problems and policies of the enterprise. According to Prof. A. Dasgupta (1968), the scope for a two-way means of consulting and changing facts, opinions and ideas between management and employees pertain to:

1. knowledge of policies and objectives of an enterprise 
2. knowledge of results and achievements from these policies 
3.  knowledge of plans and prospects for the future 
4.  knowledge of conditions of service 
5.  knowledge of ways and means of improving efficiency and productivity 
6.  knowledge of all aspects of industrial safety, health and 

3.2 Communication Process Model

A simple communication model which reflects communication as a dynamic interactive process has been proposed by David Berdo (1960). His approach is based upon the following idea:

If we accept the concept of process, we view events and relationships as dynamic, ongoing, ever-changing, and continuous. When we label something as a process, we also mean that it does not have a beginning, an end, a fixed sequence of events. It is not static, at rest. It is moving. The ingredients within a process interact, each affects all the others.

This model - described as a series of steps, consists of the following components.

1. Message sender - This is the source of information or the initiator of communication. This source may want to communicate his ideas, needs, intentions or other pieces of information. 
2. Encoder - This is the process inside the human mind in the form of motor skills, muscle system or sensory skills that encode the ideas to be conveyed into a series of symbols or gestures or some other format of expression. 
3.  The message - The message is a physical form of the thought which can be experienced and understood by one or more senses of the receiver. It can be in the form of hearing, reading or other physical gestures. 
4. Channel of communication - It is a vehicle used for the transmission of the message. It is a medium carrier and bridges the gap between the sender and the receiver. It may be a face-to- face conversation, telephone conversation, in written form or through any form of gesture. 
5. Perception of the message - The message is received by the person for whom it was meant and he becomes the receiver of the message. 

3.3 Superior-Subordinate Communication

One of the basic foundations of organisational operations is the communication between superiors and subordinates in the hierarchical system. Traditionally, the dominant theme in this type of organisational communication has been the “downward” communication as far as the directions are concerned and “upward” communication as far as operational reports and other feedbacks are concerned.

The downward communication is from the superior to the subordinate or from the top management down to workers through the various hierarchical communication centres in between. This may include such standard managerial tools as statement of the organisational philosophy and organisational objectives, standard operating and other relevant material. Downward channels are used to give employees work instructions and other information needed to exercise the delegated authority.
In order for this communication to be effective, the workers should not only be told what to do, but also why they are doing it and why their jobs are important. This increases a feeling of acceptance on the part of workers. It is also important that the communication is transmitted to workers in the language that they can understand. For example, a machine operator may not understand much about the organisational philosophy or any specialised terminology about strategic planning or technological dynamics. They must be communicated in a language that he/she can clearly understand

Also, most workers are conditioned to accept communication from their immediate superiors; and hence, the message must be filtered down through normal channels and edited on the way down, wherever necessary, without tampering with the content or intent of the message. It is important, however, that there is no communication breakdown at any level or from any source. This breakdown may occur due to failure of the message to get through, failure to deliver the message at the proper time or proper place or improper coding of the message (Schneider, et al., 1976). The message must be coded in the language of the receiver, rather than the language of the sender.

The “upward” communication moves in the opposite direction and is based upon the communication demand system, designed by the management to receive information from operational levels. This information may consist of standard reporting items such as production reports, sales reports, customer complaints, quality control reports, etc. According to Ester R. Becker, upward communication provides a clear channel for funneling information, opinion and attitudes up through the organisation. The organisation must provide a climate and an incentive system which is necessary to encourage such communication. This climate can be generated by an “open door” policy where the workers know that their superiors are always available for discussion of problems. The system must ensure that the superiors have developed listening skills as well as a sincere and sympathetic attitude towards worker’s problems. This opportunity for upward communication encourages employees to contribute valuable ideas for improving organisational efficiency (Dooher and Vivienne, 1957).
In addition to upward and downward communication, there is horizontal or lateral communication between equals. This is more informal in nature and is necessary in promoting a supportive organisational climate. For example, supervisors at the same level but from different departments, having lunch together or coffee together can discuss and organise their activities in such a manner that they complement each other and the process is beneficial to the company as a whole.

Wenburg and Wilmont (1973) suggest that instead of communication being “upward” or “downward” - which is inter-communication, it should be “transactional” communication which is mutual and reciprocal because, everyone is engaged in sending (encoding) and receiving (decoding) messages simultaneously. Every individual is, constantly, sharing in the encoding and decoding process and each person is affecting the other. In the transactional process, the communication is not simply flow of information, but it develops a personal linkage between the superior and the subordinate.

3.4 Oral and Written Communication

Communication may be divided into two, namely: oral and written. They are discussed below.

a. Oral communication

Oral communication is known as face-to-face communication and may be in the form of direct talk and conversation or public address. It also includes telephone calls or talking on the intercom system. It is most effective when settling a dispute among employees or reprimanding a worker. In one-way form of communication, it is very effective for leaders to address the followers via public address system or audio-visual media. The human voice can impart the message much more forcefully and effectively than written words and is an effective way of changing attitudes, beliefs and feelings, since faith, trust and sincerity can be much better measured in a face-to-face conversation rather than in written words.

b. Written communication

A written communication is put in writing and is generally in the form of instructions, letters, memos, formal reports, rules and regulations, policy manuals, information bulletins, etc. These areas have to be covered in writing for efficient functioning of an organisation. It is most effective when it is necessary to communicate information that requires action in the future and where the communication is general in nature. It also ensures that everyone concerned has the same information.

3.5 Communication Grapevines

While it is necessary to have a formal organisational structure for communication channels, since an effective network and flow of communication may regulate behaviour, encourage innovation, integrate or coordinate activities and inform or instruct employees (Leavitt, 1951); it is also very beneficial to attend to informal channels of communication. These informal channels-commonly known as grapevine, can communicate important operational matters (that will not be feasible through formal channels) to the management

This type of communication is more lateral in nature; and it is built around the social relationship and social interaction among the members of the organisation. This informal communication can be considered as a beneficial safety valve capable of carrying important information quickly and accurately. It can also be considered as destructive, focusing on its capacity to spread rumours, destroy morale, misinform and create interpersonal problems. Such consideration will depend upon the type of climate that exists in the organisation (Davis, 1953).

There are some problems with the hierarchical channels of communication that can be minimised through informal channels of communication. According to Mazumdar (1970), such problems are as follows:

1. The mass of information that is generated every day, if communicated through formal channels, will create a bottleneck in the speedy flow of information, at any level in the hierarchical structure. 
2.  Due to several levels in the hierarchical process, much of the information is lost or distorted at each step, since each person at each level may perceive the information in a different perspective. According to Nichols (1962): 

3.6 Barriers to Effective Communication

The communication must be interpreted and understood in the same manner as it was meant to be sent by the sender, otherwise it will not achieve the desired results and a communication breakdown will occur. There are certain external roadblocks to effective communication like noise, poor timing and incomplete, inadequate or unclear information, poor choice of channel of transmission of information, etc., which can affect the proper reception of the communication. In addition, there are personal factors which may make the communication not to be interpreted in the same manner as intended by the sender but in a way that the receiver wants to receive it, depending upon the stimuli present, emotions or prejudices for or against a concept or ideology or personal conflicts; so that instead of interpreting the content of the communication, the intent of the sender may be interpreted.



According to Rogers and Roethlisberger (1952), communication effectiveness is always influenced by “our very natural tendency to judge, to evaluate, to approve or disapprove the statement of the other person or other group”. This evaluation tendency may alter the meaning of the entire communication. Accordingly, management should not only attempt to eliminate all external barriers so that the communication is clear and to the point, but also try to understand the perceptions and attitudes of the receiver. Only then can the communication have its maximum effect.

Some of the organisational barriers and some of the interpersonal barriers to effective communication are discussed below.

1. Noise barriers - Noise is any external factor which interferes with the effectiveness of communication. The term is derived from noise or static effects in telephone conversions or radio wave transmission. It may cause interference in the process of communication by distracting or by blocking a part of the message or by diluting the strength of the communication. Some of the sources contributing towards noise factors are: 
2. Poor timing - The manager must know when to communicate. A message that requires action in the distant future may be forgotten by the time action is to be taken. Similarly, a last minute communication with a deadline may put too much pressure on the receiver and may result in resentment. A message must be sent at an appropriate time to avoid these problems. 

3.7 Overcoming Communication Barriers

It is very important that management should recognise and overcome barriers to effective communication for operational optimisation. This will involve diagnosing and analysing situations, designing proper messages, selecting appropriate channels for communicating these messages, assisting receivers in decoding and interpreting and providing an efficient and effective feedback system. Some of the steps to be taken are as follows:

1. Feedback and upward communication - Feedback helps to reduce misunderstandings. Information is transferred more accurately when the receiver is given the opportunity to ask for clarifications and answers to any questions about the message. Two-way communication, even though more time consuming, prevents distrust and leads to trust and openness which builds a healthy relationship, contributing to the effectiveness of communication. Upward communication is strengthened by keeping an open-door policy and providing opportunities for workers to give suggestions which should be taken seriously (by management) by acknowledging them and taking appropriate action.
2.  Improve listening skills - According to Stuart Chase (1954), “listening is the other half of talking” and is a very important part of the total communication process. Listening is an active mental process and goes beyond simply hearing. Good listening habits lead to better understanding and good interpersonal relationships.
3. Develop writing skills - Clearly written messages can help avoid semantic and perception barriers. A well written communication eliminates the risk of misinterpretation. In writing messages, it is necessary to be precise, making the meaning as clear as possible so that it accomplishes the desired purpose. Some helpful hints in written communications are suggested by Robert DeGise (1976); 

3.8 Guidelines for Effective Communication

These guidelines are designed to help management improve its skills in communicating, so as not only to avoid any barriers to effective communication but also to strengthen the basis for optimum results which depend upon the clear understanding of the desired communication. These guidelines are partially based upon the principles proposed by American Management Association. These are listed below.

1. The ideas and messages should be clear, brief and precise - The ideas to be communicated must be well planned and clearly identified. This will eliminate ambiguity so that the message subject to more than one interpretation. The message must be clear, precise and to the point and free from distortions and noise. It should also be brief so that it is just necessary and sufficient and should avoid loose ends or meaningless and unnecessary words. 
2. Sense of timing - The message should not only be timely so that the decisions and actions can be taken in time and when necessary, but also the timing of the message and the setting in which the message is delivered and received is equally important. An important message delivered at the wrong time or in a non- conducive environment may lose its effectiveness. The environment involves physical setting, i.e., whether the communication is conveyed in private, and also it involves the social climate which determines the work setting as well as interpersonal relationships. 
3.  Integrity - Communication must pass through the proper channels to reach the intended receiver. Communication flow must avoid by-passing levels or people. When these concerned levels are omitted or by-passed, it creates bickering, distrust, confusion and conflict. Accordingly, the established channels must be used as required. 

4.0 CONCLUSION

You have been exposed to communication, in its entirety, in this unit. Its importance in management process has been emphasised. Also, the unit has considered types of communication, barriers to effective communication and how to overcome these barriers.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

In what way does horizontal communication help in creating team spirit and organisational integration?