THE TYPOLOGIES OF THE RESEARCH METHODS

In the last unit, we discussed the steps and components of the research process. You have now
known these steps, for you to continue in your research encounter, you must choose a research method or type. There are many of them some of them are quantitative, while others are qualitative. In this unit and other units that follow, you will enable you make up your mind on what method to use in your research study. Specifically in this unit you will look at empiricism, phenomenology and the critical research processes.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:-

1. Explain empiricism 
2. Describe the empirical research process 
3. Explain the meaning of phenomenology 
4. Discuss the phenomenological approaches in social science research 
5. Describe the elements of critical research 
6. Describe the approaches in critical social research. 

 EMPIRICISM

Let us start this section by section by stating that an empiricist is one who practices empiricism. The question then is what is empiricism? Any system which does not agree with all past knowledge which rests solely on experience can be regarded as empiricism. In other words it lays emphasis on induction, the use of direct observation to confirm ideas and the linking together of observed facts to form theories or explanations of how natural phenomena and events work. You know that social life is visibly chaotic. Its concrete ingredients are people.

The substance of our observation remains the events and phenomena. Each of these are unique, just as human beings are unique. Therefore to be an empiricist, you must be ready to confront the truth. You should be ready to work with apparent disorder, nonreplicable people and non- repetitive events and phenomena.

Empirical Enquiry

An empirical scientific research can be regarded as a way of looking at things. We can also think
of it as a method of approaching to the empirical world. You already know that science consists of theory and facts.

 You also know that a fact is an empirically verifiable observation and a theory tries to find relationships among facts. The facts of science are the products of observations. The construction of a theory is the most important purpose of empirical scientific inquires. Theory gives orientation to empirical inquiries it guides the collection of relevant date and offers conceptual scheme that will bind them together in a more systematic manner, theories are said to represent improvement in knowledge. This is the main focus in research. While theories help us to predict facts, facts help to initiate theories and to test the validity of existing theories. Facts clarify and redefine theory. But theories and facts stimulate each other and contribute to the growth of empirical knowledge.

Empirical studies make use of all research tools. These include observations, both participant and
non-participant; interviews which can be structured, semi-structured and in-depth; key informant testimonies, analysis of personal and institutional documents, mass media analysis, examination of official documents and statistics, archival searching, review of published literature. Empirical social research employs a wide range and variety of analytical techniques such as ethnographic
interpretations, historical reconstructions, action research, multivariate analysis structuralist deconstruction and semiological analysis.

 Empirical Research Process

In empirical research method, you proceed in a systematic and orderly manner in order to pursue
the truth as determined by facts and logical considerations. The main purpose is to find a systematic interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation and logical procedures. It means that it can only be conducted based on a rigorous impersonal procedure dictated by the demand of logic and objective procedures. The steps involved are

• Data collection through careful and critical observation with patience, precision and impartiality 
• Measurement 
• Classification, Organization and Tabulation of data 
• Data analysis and Reduction 
• Formulation of hypotheses and 
• Formulation of theory and Law 

The main features of empirical scientific research are:

1. Observation: In order to obtain knowledge, empirical research relies on observation. It is the cornerstone of any empirical inquiry. It supplies us with the thing that we try to understand and explain observation in an empirical research is not casual, but a conscious and deliberate activity designed to reduce error. It requires improved accuracy. It uses certain devices which add great precision to scientific observation. Meaningful observation results in the establishment of facts. These are used for verifying empirical theories, building them and modifying or improving them.
2. Concepts: These are the building blocks of scientific empirical research. Theories consist of several inter-related concepts. Although concepts are said to be fundamental to all human communication and thought, yet the concept we use in our day to day affairs are not always clear and precise. They have to be defined with precision to foster clear thinking; precise definitions convey exact meaning and explanation to both the empiricist and the readers. 
3.  Objectivity: This indicates that all the conclusions you reach in your empirical research are not affected by your personal views, values or biases. It permits repetition of observations under practically identical conditions, to get the same results. It facilitates the verification of facts and theories by many empiricists independently. 
4. Verifiability: The findings of your research are said to be empirical if only they can be verified. Any theory which contains facts that cannot be verified tends to be metaphysical rather than scientific. Therefore all empirical conclusions are liable for verification at any time. An empirical scientific theory of generalization stands to be rejected or modified at anytime. 
5.  Predictability: Accurate and precise predictions constitute one of the most impressive achievements of empirical researches. Predictability depends on the nature of the phenomena and our knowledge of the causes of the phenomena. If there is more number of causes predictions become more and more difficult. Prediction also depends on our ability to have precise theories and accurate measurement. 
6. Systematic Nature: Empirical investigations are systematic, thorough and rigorous in making use of designs to guard against errors from data collection, interpretation and generalization from the data. Empirical investigations are systematic in the methods used for data collection, formulation of hypotheses, data analysis techniques and the logic use for making generalizations. It self – correcting because you have the opportunity to find any flows that may come in at any stage of investigation. It is the systematic nature of empirical inquiry that distinguishes it from other non-scientific investigations. 

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE I
What are the steps involved in empirical research?
Describe the main features of empirical research?